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Educational Post Firing Schedule Variables There are several key issues that effect the final firing schedule selected. 1. Functional or Non-functional use. 2. Wall thickness: thrown or hand built up to 3/8". Structural starting at 1/2" up. Sculptural with varying thickness/ parts. 3. High iron/ carbon bodies vs. white body. 4. Single fire vs. bisq. For the bulk of most firings; functional or non-functional and single fire vs. bisq fire comprise most firings. The additional variable is how thick are these pieces? Several universities across the world have done studies using X-ray defraction to measure heat work in gradient kilns. The general consensus being that it can take up to 30 minutes for the atmospheric temperature to reach the core of the clay body in the 3/8 to 1/2" thick range. In order for clay to fully mature, this variable has to be included in the firing schedule for functional wares. Absorption rates increase, COE values can change and firing defects such as pin holing, blistering, and shivering can be attributed to firing schedules. Sodium (Nep Sy) is the flux of choice in the USA and Canada; and is commonly used in other parts of the world. It is a cheap body flux but it does create issues. Sodium begins to melt at 2044F, and potassium at 2012F, as the clay is converting from spinel to mullite at 2050F. In application; at the same time sodium begins to off gas vigorously, the porosity of the clay is beginning to close up. Extending the time climbing to peak temperature allows the feldspars to completely off gas; thereby resolving pin hole issues while maturing the clay. Selecting a preset ramp speed or programming your own depends upon the clay body, piece size, weight, and foot ring contact. In addition, starting at single fire or from bisq also decides ramp speed. Pieces with wall thickness above 3/8", heavy pieces above 7lbs, or pieces with large shelf contact such as platters need slower ramp speeds to allow for even heat distribution. Slower speeds during the quartz inversion range is also advisable for large format pieces Quartz inversion occurs at 573C (1064F) when quartz changes from alpha to beta phase. Silica (quartz) actually expands at this temperature: part of an exothermic reaction. Just prior to this phase change and to just above this temperature: molecular moisture is being driven out of the body resulting in overall shrinkage. These two processes are occurring relatively at the same time: overall shrinkage from the loss of molecular moisture, while silica is expanding during inversion. If pieces are heavy enough, have weight, or have large shelf contact such as platters: cracking can occur. The remedy for this issue is programming a 100F per hour climb from 1000 to 1100F before resuming higher ramp speeds. You can actually increase firing speed to 180 to 270F an hour if firing porcelain or white stoneware. The overall size and weight of the piece may still justify a slow ramp cycle once you pass the inversion temperature range. Wadding, sand, or alumina may be placed under large/heavy pieces to facilitate movement during the firing cycle. Dark and red bodied stoneware produce buff, terra cotta, and brown bodies that potters love. While they produce warm toasty colors, those colors come from iron disulfide. (Pyrite) in addition, lignite coal particles are common contaminants. Both sources of sulfides require special firing cycles to prevent blistering, bloating, and carbon coring. Inorganic carbons burn off from 1250 to 1750F, and require heavy oxidation during this temperature range. Rather single firing or bisq firing: programming a slow cycle of 108F an hour (slow speed) from 1250 to 1750f an hour while oxidizing the kiln is required. If single firing; you are simply programming a bisq fire, while incorporating the final ramps to peak temperature. If firing large, heavy, or large foot ring pieces: then adding a quartz inversion cycle is required. If firing dark or red bodied stoneware; then programming a slow ramp (108F) from 1250 to 1750F while oxidizing the kiln is required to avoid blistering, bloating, and coring. Once you reach 1800F in a single fire, then you can increase ramp speed to 180 to 270F until you hit 2050F. At this temp, speed is then reduced to 108 to 125F an hour to allow escaping spars to escape before the clay body vitrifies. University studies from around the world all report an endothermic reaction at 2050F as observed by X-ray defraction. It is a key reaction temperature in the firing cycle; when the porosity of the body begins to close rapidly. Most clay bodies in the USA and Canada use Nep Sy (sodium) as a body flux. At 2044F, sodium becomes reactive and off gasses vigorously; which appears as pin holes in the glaze. Rather single firing or starting from bisq; slow ramping from 2050F to peak hold allows the extra time for off gassing spars to dissipate. Recommended ramp cycle from 2050 to 2232F is 108-125F an hour. A commonly used peak temperature is 2190F with an extended hold (cone 6 ), use the recommended ramp cycle for this program firing. This slow ramp cycle towards peak range also has the added benefit of extending element life. Tom